Collection Publications: From Ritual Simplicity to Imperial Splendor: Chinese Ceramics from the Collection of Nelson Chang, Class of 1974
From Ritual Simplicity to Imperial Splendor: Chinese Ceramics from the Collection of Nelson Chang, Class of 1974
From the ethereal emptiness emerges clarity… Wondrous pleasures are found everywhere in life. -- Nelson Chang From simple funerary and everyday vessels to porcelain of luxurious refinement reserved for the enjoyment of the imperial household, the question is raised as to what, if anything, constitutes "Chinese taste" in ceramics-- whether any unifying aesthetic can be perceived throughout the centuries, or whether the great variety of ceramics manufactured in China precludes such generalizations so that one may speak only of what some Chinese liked at some particular time and place. Vessel shape, decoration, method of manufacture, and place and period of origin are other factors in the consideration of Chinese ceramics. A starting point in considering Chinese ceramics is their fired characteristics. Low-fired, porous, and permeable earthenware appeared in the Neolithic period (ca. 7000-ca. 1500 B.C.), and by the Han dynasty (206 B.C.-A .D. 220) was often glazed to improve its ability to hold liquids or for decoration. Early high-fired stoneware, impervious to liquid and resonant when struck, was produced as early as the Shang dynasty (ca . 1600-ca. 1100 B.C.). A later form of glazed stoneware with a semi-translucent, near white clay body, common from the seventh to the ninth centuries, is sometimes called porcelaneous stoneware. Porcelain, fired at even higher temperatures, has an impermeable, resonant, pure white translucent body, and was produced as early as the seventh century. The Chinese made a distinction only between low-fired earthenware ( t 'ao) and highfired stoneware ( tz 'u). Porcelain was judged not unique enough to require a separate category even though it was manufactured only in China for many centuries, and became highly prized in the West.
FUNCTIONAL AND RITUAL BEGINNINGS
Neolithic cultures within the region that became China produced diverse ceramics. Simple earthen ware, possibly from as early as the ninth or eighth millennium B.C., has been found at sites in southwest and northern China. The Ta-wen-k'ou culture (ca. 4300-2400 B.C.), in northeast China, was noted particularly for two types of ceramics: thin-walled, wheel-turned, black-bodied ware and tripod vessels known as kuei fashioned out of finegrained, light-bodied clay. It is likely, judging from their placement in burials and their relative rarity and fineness, these vessels served some ritual use. The Yang-shao culture (ca. 5000-3000 B.C.), sometimes referred to as the Painted Pottery culture after its most noted ceramics, occupied much of northern central China. A regional branch known as the Kansu Yang-shao or the Ma-chia-yao culture (ca. 4000-2000 B.C.) developed in the western provinces of Kansu and Ch'ing-hai. The early phase of Ma-chia-yao ceramic development featured earthenware decorated with black undulating lines and dots applied with a brush-like implement. In the next stage, known as the Pan-shan phase (ca. 2600- 2300 B.C.), designs were painted in two colors, black and maroon. Most typical are large globular storage jars with sweeping spirals and netlike designs, but smaller jars also have been recovered from Panshan sites. Earthenware continued to be used for everyday functions after bronze became the dominant material for ritual use in the Shang and Chou (ca. 1100-256 B.C.) dynasties. Ceramic vessels sharing the same decoration as contemporary bronzes, however, may still have had a ritual purpose, and some earlier earthenware vessel forms, such as kuei tripods anticipated the form taken by certain Shang ritual bronzes. During this period a broad range of decorative techniques developed, unglazed and glazed stone ware was produced, and ceramic vessels and figurines were used as mortuary items. Special care was taken in manufacturing ceramics that had ceremonial function. If one accepts the view that the ceramics discussed above had ritual purpose, then aesthetic choices were made in favor of a decorated surface or a simple form-a stylistic dialogue that persists throughout the history of Chinese ceramics.
CH’IN (221-206 B.C.) to TANG DYNASTIES (A.D. 618-907)
Earthenware burial vessels and figures became very important in this era while glazed stoneware continued to develop. One group of stoneware produced in the Han dynasty is large wine or food storage jar s, some with flared necks. Recalling earlier bronze vessel forms, the upper portions of these jars have an olive green glaze and incised and combed designs. Carefully and sturdily made, such jars were probably used in daily life and only later placed in tombs. After the collapse of the Han dynasty, glazed stoneware of even greater refinement and variety was produced during the Six Dynasties (222-589) period. Of particular note are celadon stonewares produced in both northern and southern China. Examples recovered from tombs and other sites indicate some were used both in daily life and burials, and others, judging from their decoration, had religious meaning. With national reunification under the Sui dynasty (581-618), China entered a new era highlighted by the prosperity of the early Tang dynasty. Ceramics with lead-fluxed glazes, once popular in the Han dynasty, came into wider use again during the Sui and Tang, and are usually called "three-color" (sants'ai) ware after the colorful varieties, although the term also is applied to monochromes. The three color glazed amphora with dragon handles was a popular form during the seventh and eighth centuries, and showed both Chinese and foreign traits. The handles evoke Chinese mythology, while their arched, symmetrical placement may derive from foreign glass or metal models. Stoneware made in this period included not only celadons and various dark-glazed ware, some with suffusions, but also white porcelaneous ware and rare porcelain. The reappearance in the late sixth century of white-bodied ware, which had not been emphasized since the Shang dynasty, signaled a change of taste in ceramics, resulting in northern kilns becoming the major producers of white ware during the next few centuries.
SUNG (960-1279) TO YUAN (1260-1368) DYNASTIES
Many of the most prized ceramics were produced during the Sung and Chin (1115-1234) dynasties. The kilns at Ching-te-chen, Kiangsi province, rose to prominence in the Sung with the manufacture of white porcelain covered by transparent glazes with pale blue or green tints (ch 'ing -pai or y ing -ch 'ing). Similar porcelain also was produced at other southern kilns, ranging from delicate petaled bowls to massive funerary storage urns with symbols of the sun and moon that probably reflected local burial beliefs. Other southern kilns included the Lung-ch'uan complex in Chekiang province that produced the noted jade-like celadons, known as Lungch'uan ware. Kilns in the southern provinces of Fukien and Kiangsi produced dark-glazed ware including Chien ware "hare's-fur" tea bowls, Chi-chou ware distinguished by glaze-resist designs and "tortoiseshell" glazes. Despite its rough quality, dark-glazed ware was appreciated for its naturalness and spontaneity by the Sung court, notably Emperor Hui-tsung, an avid artist, collector, and tea aficionado. The appreciation of dark tea bowls corresponded to the popularity of Fukien teas, frothy white beverages that were enhanced by the dark glazes. Northern kilns continued to excel in white ware during the Sung and Chin, including Ting ware noted for its white body and ivory-tone glaze. Tz'u-chou ware, named after an important kiln site in Hopei province, produced popular wares on which designs were sometimes incised to exploit the contrast of a darker clay body under a white or cream slip or underglaze painting was used to create spontaneous designs recalling ink painting or calligraphy. The Liao dynasty (907-1125), established by the Khitan people, encompassed large areas of northeast China. Lead-glazed ceramics of this period elaborated on T'ang models, while other wares, such as white porcelain, closely resembled contemporary Sung ware. Many Liao ceramics reflected distinct Khitan customs, notably bottles imitating animal skin pouches used by the Khitan to carry liquids on horseback. Among these vessels are examples with cockscomb-shaped, pierced handles. After the reunification of China under Mongol rule during the Yuan dynasty, one of the most important developments in ceramic history was the production of underglaze blue decorated white porcelain, commonly known as "blue-and-white" ware. Among archaeologically excavated examples from the Yuan are dragon-decorated, blue-andwhite stem cups. Although it is possible that this technique predates the Yuan, evidence is still inconclusive. Blue-and-white ware was not widely produced until the Yuan, and although perhaps not completely inspired by Mongol or foreign tastes, it initially did not appeal to many Chinese, who still preferred more restrained wares, such as those with monochrome glazes.
MING (1368-1644) TO CH’ING (1644-1911) DYNASTIES
With the return to native rule during the Ming dynasty, the kilns of Ching-te-chen came to dominate ceramic production. Ching-te-chen porcelain included white ware and high-fired blue-, red-, and celadon-glazed monochrome ware. Additional monochromes, such as yellow and turquoise, were produced by applying low-fired glazes (enamels) on already fired porcelains, which were then re-fired. The Ming period also saw the widespread acceptance of blue-and-white ware and the development of innovative polychrome ware, which sometimes combined various high- and low-fired glazes. Auspicious designs had long adorned Chinese ceramics, but were more abundantly used in the Ming, due partially to changes in taste and advances in decorative techniques. Early Ming monochromes are noted for their simplicity and elegance. At court, white porcelain was prized by the Yung-lo emperor (r. 1403-1424) and continued in importance during the first part of the Hslian-te reign (1426-1435), when blue-and white ware became more prevalent. Monochrome ware was often unadorned, but in some instances, a subtle, almost invisible decoration of a type known as "secret decoration" (an-hua) was created by incising or brushing a fine slip design on the vessel surface. The color of monochrome ware also was significant. Yellow, for example, was associated with the emperor, and in the Ming dynasty yellow porcelain was prescribed for certain imperial rituals such as the worship of the Earth. Ming kilns other than those at Ching-te-chen also found markets for their ceramics. In northern China, kilns in Shansi province produced porcelaneous stoneware known as fa-hua (bounded pattern). Perhaps inspired by cloisonné enamelware, the design was created by applying threads of clay, or slip, to the vessel, then painting glazes within the outlined areas. Ching-te-chen ceramics produced during the Manchu-ruled Ch'ing dynasty attained an unprecedented level of technical perfection. Elegant monochrome and polychrome ware was produced for the use of the imperial household during the reigns of the Yung-cheng (r. 1723-173 5) and Ch'ien-lung (r. 1736-1795) emperors. Ch'ing ceramics are more diverse than Ming ware, even if one only considers ware manufactured for the imperial household, which included vessels ranging from the most simple in form to the most extravagant in decoration, some inspired by ancient models. The breadth of Ch'ing imperial ceramics is evident in an eighteenth-century list of fifty-seven types of wares manufactured for the imperial household. Imitations of older ware figure prominently in this list. Even when not directly modeled after older ware, Ch'ing ceramics display the influence of the past. The organization and choice of floral and Buddhist motifs in a large blue and-white vase, for example, can be linked to Ming models, but the regularity of the design and technical perfection of the vessel are traits of Ch'ing imperial wares. Many new overglaze enamels, however, enabled color combinations not previously possible in ceramics, most notably those known in the West as famille rose. Ch'ing imperial ceramics prominently featured auspicious and religious symbols in their decorations, which may have reflected the emperors' personal beliefs. The Ch'ien-lung emperor ardently supported Tibetan Lamaist Buddhism, and built several Lamaist temples in the Forbidden City. Two surviving temples still house altars equipped with metal or enamelware sets of Eight Buddhist Emblems similar to a rare complete set of ceramic altar ornaments decorated with overglaze poly chrome and gold enamel…. The high level of craftsmanship and quality of materials lavished on this altar set reflect its imperial and religious importance. Another tour de force of Ch'ing craftsmanship is a polychrome openwork vase with a rotating core decorated with painted figures of the Eight Immortals. The a auspicious theme of long life represented by the Immortals is reinforced on this vase with characters for longevity (shou), and may indicate the vessel was made as a birthday gift. How such rotating vessels were constructed remains uncertain. Throughout the history of Chinese ceramics, despite the variety and complexity of utilitarian, decorative, and ceremonial ware, one finds a constant interplay of simplicity of form and extravagance in decoration. These two forces come together especially in the Ch'ing dynasty, which produced both some of the most self-consciously plain and lavishly decorated of all Chinese ceramics.
--Virginia Bower, guest curator
Cary Y. Liu, Nancy and Peter Lee Curator of Asian Art
